The advent and increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) has brought a wave of change to the automotive supply chain, including the heat treating industry. While the internal combustion engine (ICE) and all its related components may one day become a thing of the past, there are several key areas of every vehicle that aren’t going anywhere fast. In this Technical Tuesday article, Rob Simons, metallurgical engineering manager at Paulo, discusses the difference between EV and ICE vehicles and the latest heat treating trends to be aware of.
The most apparent difference between EVs and ICE vehicles is that, with EVs, fuel and internal combustion engines are no longer needed. The two vehicle types rely on different sets of key components, and when it comes to making the cars run, EVs use fewer parts that require heat treatment.
Without ICE systems, EVs require fewer fasteners, shafts, gears, and rods — all parts that are typically heat treated. But that doesn’t mean heat treatment is less critical for EVs. In fact, certain parts require additional attention on EVs when compared to ICE vehicles, and many safety-critical parts remain the same across both categories. Let’s begin our discussion with the differences in braking systems between the two technologies and what that means for heat treatment.
Latest Trends in Disc Brake Rotors
How EV Brake Systems Work
There’s no question that electric power innovations have completely revolutionized the way vehicles (and the automotive industry) operate. The regenerative braking system is just one aspect of this. Instead of relying on the conventional hydraulic system every time you press the brakes (which uses friction to decelerate), manufacturers have found a way to use the vehicle’s kinetic energy to put the electric motor into reverse, slowing down the vehicle and returning energy to the battery.
Although regenerative braking is more efficient, hydraulic braking still has one key advantage: stopping power. EVs today are equipped with conventional braking mechanisms for emergency purposes.
The Rust Conundrum
To address recurring rotor corrosion, heat treaters introduced ferritic nitrocarburizing (FNC). FNC is a thermal process traditionally used for case hardening, and for brake rotors, it’s used to achieve corrosion resistance.
The Solution: Corrosion-Resistant Rotors with FNC
To address recurring rotor corrosion, heat treaters introduced ferritic nitrocarburizing (FNC). FNC is a thermal process traditionally used for case hardening, and for brake rotors, it’s used to achieve corrosion resistance.
Figure 1 shows a perfect example of the difference that FNC makes. These are pictures of brake rotors from electric vehicles owned by two Paulo team members — one has brake rotors that were ferritic nitrocarburized and show no signs of rust, whereas the other did not go through the FNC process.
Ferritic Nitrocarbonizing Process
FNC is a case hardening technique that uses heat, nitrogen, and carbon to toughen up the exterior of a steel part, improving its durability, decreasing the potential for corrosion, and enhancing its appearance. FNC is unique in that it offers case hardening without the need to heat metal parts into a phase change (it’s done between 975–1125°F). Within that temperature range, nitrogen atoms can diffuse into the steel, but the risk of distortion is decreased. Due to their shape and size, carbon atoms cannot diffuse into the part in this low-temperature process. However, carbon is necessary in the FNC process to generate desirable properties in the intermetallic layer.
Heat Treated Materials for Automotive Seating Components
Safety-Critical Components
Like brake rotors, many automotive seating components (like mechanisms for seat recliners) are here to stay. Thermal processing is used to achieve stringent specifications that are put in place to keep drivers safe in the event of a collision. EV seat components and the thermal processes used to make them crash-ready are identical to those of ICE vehicle components.
Figure 2. To achieve the stringent specifications for components like seat recliners, identical
thermal processing is implemented for both EVs and ICE vehicles.
Seating Components
Generally, these components are case hardened (either carburized or carbonitrided), typically using one of the following materials:
1010 and 1020 carbon steel: These are plain carbon steel with 0.10% carbon content, fairly good formability, and relatively low strength.
1018 carbon steel: 1018 is a grade that’s often chosen for parts that require greater core hardness and better heat treatment response than 1010 or 1020.
10B21 boron steel: Boron steels are becoming more popular in the automotive industry due to their excellent heat treatment response.
4130 alloy steel and 8620 alloy steel: Alloy steels are more responsive to heat treatment than plain carbon steels, so the thermal processing specifications for parts made from these materials are often adjusted to account for the material’s innate strength properties.
Seat Belt Latches
High-strength seat belt latches are usually made from the following materials:
4140 and 4130 alloy steels: 4140 alloy steel is one of the most common engineering steels used in manufacturing. For seat latches and hooks, 4140 and 4130 will be neutral hardened to increase their strength and hardness throughout due to the high performance and precision required of these parts.
1050 carbon steel: 1050 is a medium carbon steel that contains 0.47–0.55% carbon content. Carbon steels are a less expensive choice when compared to alloy steels such as 4140 or 4130.
Seat Frames and Brackets
Seat frames (also known as seat brackets) give car seats their shape using slender pieces of steel joined together to form the skeleton of the seat. These components are often made from boron steels:
10B21 or 15B24 boron steel: These are a good choice for seat brackets because they are only marginally more expensive than other steels used in seating but have impressive toughness, have a good heat treat response, and are weldable.
A Closer Look: Case Hardening for Seating Components
Case hardening diffuses carbon or carbon and nitrogen into the surface of a metal from the atmosphere within a furnace at high temperatures. Adding carbon or carbon and nitrogen to the surface of steel hardens a metal object’s surface while allowing the metal deeper underneath to remain softer, creating a part that is hard and wear-resistant on the surface while retaining a degree of flexibility with a softer, more ductile core. This softness and ductility create toughness in parts, allowing them to respond to stress without failing. Case hardening is a general term for this heat treating method. Depending on the materials and specifications for the part, we apply various case hardening techniques, including carburizing and carbonitriding.
Figure 3. When it comes to heat treating, innovations are rarely exclusive to EVs.
Carbonitriding
During carbonitriding, parts are heated in a sealed chamber well into the austenitic range — around 1600°F — before nitrogen and carbon are added. Because the part is heated into the austenitic range, a phase change occurs, and carbon and nitrogen atoms can diffuse into the part. Carbonitriding is used to harden surfaces of parts made of relatively inexpensive and easily machined or formed steels, which we often see in automotive metal stampings. This process increases wear resistance, surface hardness, and fatigue strength. It is also good for parts that require retention of hardness at elevated temperatures.
Neutral Hardening
Also called through hardening, neutral hardening is a very old method for hardening steel. It involves heating the metal to a specified temperature and then quenching it, usually in oil, to achieve high hardness/strength. In this process, the primary concern is increasing hardness throughout the part, as opposed to generating specific properties between the surface and the core of the part.
All of the metal components of a seat belt, including seat belt loops, tongues, and buckles, are neutral hardened. Specifications typically dictate that these components are hardened to up to 200 thousand pounds per square inch (ksi).
Because seat belt components are visible to the end consumer, their cosmetics are important in addition to their mechanical properties. It’s important to keep the furnace free of soot and thoroughly clean the parts both before and after heat treatment. Proper cleaning readies the part for secondary processing, ensuring the success of activities like polishing and chrome plating.
The Convergence of EV and ICE Vehicles
To learn more about automotive heat treating, download the free Paulo Heat Treat Guide at paulo.com/AutoGuide.
The EV revolution has significantly transformed automotive manufacturing. Despite these changes, EV parts remain remarkably similar to those of their internal combustion engine (ICE) counterparts. Consequently, any advancements in materials or heat treating processes are swiftly adopted across the entire automotive sector. When it comes to heat treating, innovations are rarely exclusive to EVs.
About the Author:
Rob Simons Metallurgical Engineering Manager Paulo
Rob provides internal and external customer support on process design, material behavior, job development, reduction of variation, and physical analyses at Paulo. He holds a Bachelor of Science in Metallurgical Engineering from the Missouri University of Science & Technology (formerly known as the University of Mines and Metallurgy) and has worked at Paulo since 1987. Rob has analyzed several million hardness data points and/or process behaviors, leading him to develop many process innovations in the metallurgical field.
Needing to learn more about the fundamentals and latest developments of stop off coatings? Mark Ratliff, president of AVION Manufacturing Company, Inc., applies his background in chemical engineering to understand and create what makes the best stop-off coatings/paints for carburizing and other heat treat processes. In this episode, Mark and Heat Treat Radio host, Doug Glenn, uncover the varieties of coatings, their uses, and the future of coating solutions.
Below, you can watch the video, listen to the podcast by clicking on the audio play button, or read an edited transcript.
The following transcript has been edited for your reading enjoyment.
Chemistry in Coatings: Mark Ratliff’s Start in the Industry (00:22)
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Doug Glenn: I have the really great honor today of talking with Mark Ratliff from AVION Manufacturing. We’re going to do a “painting class” . . . kind of, but not really. Industrial paint — we’re going to talk about stop-off paints and things of that sort.
Mark has been working at AVION, currently located in Medina, Ohio, since 1994. He graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree in chemical engineering from the University of Cincinnati. Prior to that — I did not know this about you, Mark — he worked at Shore Metal Treating with your father, huh?
Mark Ratliff: That’s correct, yes.
Doug Glenn: How long was he there?
Mark Ratliff: Well, he started the company. I went working there and was loading baskets of parts since I was about 8 years old. He would pay me $5.00 for a basket, “under the table,” and that was a lot of money back then. I was really rich, at the time!
Mark Ratliff, President, Avion Manufacturing (Source: AVION Manufacturing)
Doug Glenn: That’s pretty cool. It is very interesting to see people’s backgrounds and how they got involved in the industry. A lot of people start young, you know? You may win the record though — 8 years old! The labor board may be calling about your childhood.
Why Use Stop-Off Paints? (01:54)
Let’s talk today. Technically, we want to talk about something that not everybody may know about, and I think you and your company are kind of experts on these things, and that’s stop-off paints. Just from a 30,000-foot view — and you don’t have to go into a lot of detail here, Mark — what are stop-off paints and why do we use them?
Mark Ratliff: Stop-off paints are protective barrier-type coatings. What they do is prevent either carburization or the nitriding process from entering into the steel. They were created probably well over 50 years ago as a replacement for copperplating these parts. In the past, a long time ago, they would copperplate the part that they did not want carburized or nitrided. That’s a time-consuming process as well as being very expensive. The stop-off coatings were developed as an economical alternative to copperplating.
AVION Line of Stop-Offs (Source: AVION Manufacturing)
DougGlenn: When you say “copperplating,” does that mean it was actual thin sheets of copper metal?
MarkRatliff: That’s correct, yes.
Doug Glenn: And you actually had to wrap whatever you did not want nitrided or carburized in this copper and that would keep it from nitriding?
Mark Ratliff: That’s correct, yes.
Doug Glenn: Just in case people don’t know — but I would imagine that most people that are listening to this do know — nitriding and carburizing are both surface hardening technologies in which either nitrogen (in the case of nitriding) or carbon (in the case of carburizing) are infused into the surface. That, of course, gives improved wear properties, typically corrosion properties to those areas that receive the infusion of the metal.
Why do people not want the nitrogen or carbon to be infused to certain areas of the part?
MarkRatliff: When you harden a part, as with carburization or nitriding, a lot of times hardness equates to brittleness. So you may induce certain stress in various parts, in various areas.
Also, if you want to do a post-heat treatment machining on the part, it would be virtually impossible if that part were carburized or nitrided because the surface is so hard that the tool can’t cut through it to do further machining on the part.
“If you want to do a post-heat treatment machining on the part, it would
be virtually impossible if that part were carburized or nitrided because the surface is so hard that the tool can’t cut through it to do further machining on the part.”
— Mark Ratliff, AVION Manufacturing
Doug Glenn: Gotcha.
Can you give a couple examples of parts, and if you can do a description of where on those parts you might apply a stop-off coating?
Mark Ratliff: Well, a lot of times the end user (the customer) is painting an end of a shaft where he’ll heat treat the shaft and make the shaft harder, but he wants to spin a thread on the end of that shaft. That’s a prime example of why you would use a stop-off coating.
A lot of times, the parts are made with the threads already on, but you don’t want those threads to be hardened because, again, hardness equals brittleness, and those threads would crack off after heat treatment. That would be an area where you would apply a stop-off coating.
Doug Glenn: Tell us a little bit about the actual physical “properties" of these stop-off coatings. We also call them “stop-off paints.” I’m assuming a lot of times these are just painted on — it’s a liquid format.
Mark Ratliff: They are all supplied in liquid form with the viscosity ranging right around 3500–8500 centipoise (cP). For the carburizing stop-off, we have two different kinds. (This is not new in the industry; most people know the formulations of the stop-offs.)
We have boric acid-based stop-offs; we have two different kinds of that — a waterborne and a solvent borne. The idea behind the boric acid-based stop-offs is that as the boric acid thermally decomposes, it creates a boron oxide glass. This glass is actually the diffusion barrier of the carbon. What’s nice about the boric acid-based stop-offs is that they’re water washable after the heat treatment process; the coating and the residue can get washed off.
Another type of stop-off coating that we have is based on silicate chemistry. A silicate chemistry is basically like putting a glass on the part. It’s more of a ceramic-based coating. It works very, very well, but the drawback of the silicate-based stop-offs is that you have to bead-blast the parts after heat treatment; it does not wash off in water.
Doug Glenn and Mark Ratliff
Doug Glenn: So, you’ve got to brush it off.
Mark Ratliff: You’ve got to brush it off, mechanically, correct.
Doug Glenn: That’s interesting.
When I think of painting something on and then putting it into a furnace, the first thing I think of is that paint is going to get completely obliterated in the furnace. But you just kind of answered that question. Those things will either transform into a glass or a ceramic of some sort after they’ve been in high heat for a while, and that’s what creates the barrier.
Mark Ratliff: That’s correct.
You have the active ingredient in the stop-offs — you either have the silicate or you have the boric acid. Those are the active ingredients. The vehicle that the paint itself — be it the water-based latex or the solvent-borne bead — those do, indeed, get charred off. They get burned off, leaving the active ingredient behind.
Doug Glenn: Are you able to use either of those — the water-based or the solvent-based — in vacuum furnaces? Do you have any trouble with off-gassing and things of that sort?
Mark Ratliff: Yes, a little bit. We’ve got to be careful in the vacuum furnace market because you do have the off-gassing. The combination of the vacuum and the heat at once can cause the coating to boil and blister. We do recommend pre-heat treatments when doing a vacuum operation.
Doug Glenn: And the pre-heat just kind of helps it adhere to the part without the blistering, I guess?
Mark Ratliff: That’s correct. And it drives off a lot of the residual water or solvent that might be left in the coating.
Different Chemistry, Different Technology: Plasma Nitriding Stop-Off Coatings (08:32)
Doug Glenn: Okay, good.
Now I understand that there is a new product coming out on the nitriding end of things. Can you tell us a little bit about that and why you’re developing it?
Mark Ratliff: We’ve been making a nitriding stop-off coating since 1989 when we came out with our water-based version. We actually had it patented. We were the first on the market with a water-based nitriding stop-off. This particular stop-off has been used in the industry for 45 years now.
We got called by a current customer asking, “Hey, do you have a plasma or an ion-nitriding stop-off?” At the time, we did not. So, we developed a new plasma — aka, ion-nitriding — stop-off, and that’s a different chemistry, different technology. It is going to be available in the market very soon.
Doug Glenn: Interesting.
I’m curious about this: Are stop-off paints used more in carburizing or nitriding?
Mark Ratliff: By far, carburizing — it’s probably 10 to 1 carburizing to nitriding, for sure.
Doug Glenn: Okay, gotcha.
This episode of Heat TreatRadio is sponsored by AVION.
So, you’ve been doing this for 30 or some years, right?
Mark Ratliff: It will be my 30th anniversary in the month of April.
Doug Glenn: Very nice! Well, congratulations.
Mark Ratliff: I did work for my father prior to that, when he ran AVION for many years before that.
Doug Glenn: Well, congratulations, first off — that’s good. It shows longevity, which is good.
Memorable Moment of Innovation (11:11)
Doug Glenn: Has there been a memorable challenge that you had to deal with, with these stop-off paints?
Mark Ratliff: One thing I’m particularly proud of, Doug, is we always had the water-based carburizing stop-off coating — both varieties — the boric acid-based and the silicate-based. I had a few customers reach out to me and say, “Hey, we’re doing heat treatment for the aerospace industry or for the automotive industry, and they don’t like water-based coatings on their parts,” because you run into corrosion, you run into rust, and so forth and so on. So, these customers asked me to create the solvent-borne, which we did about seven or eight years ago.
One thing I’m particularly proud of is, I got called by the Fiat Chrysler plant in Michigan (they’re going by Stellantis, now), and unbeknownst to them, their current stop-off provider, at the time, changed the formulation. (That was due to the REACH regulations in Europe.) Since they changed the formulation, Stellantis started seeing all these problems. So, they reached out to me and asked, “Do you have an equivalent? We’d like a solvent-borne stop-off.” I was quick to respond, “Oh, by the way, yes, we do. And yes, our product is better,” because even though it’s solvent-borne, we created a nonflammable stop-off coating. In addition to being nonflammable, the solvent that we used in the coating is VOC exempt — VOC meaning volatile organic compounds — which are basically air pollutants that people want to avoid when using these stop-off coatings.
AVION Green Label pail (Source: AVION Manufacturing)
Doug Glenn: Okay, very interesting. I was going to ask you — because I saw on your website — about your green label, which you kind of hit on with the VOC part, but can you tell us a little bit about the green label products that you have and why you’re calling them “green label”?
Mark Ratliff: We called it “green label” a long time ago — that was our original stop-off which kicked off our business 50+ years ago. But I think you’re referring to our eco green label which we created about two years ago.
We’ve been getting a lot of pressure to remove VOCs from our coatings. Clients like John Deere and Caterpillar said, “Hey, we love your coating, but if you could do anything to get the VOCs out of it, we’d really appreciate it.” So, that was one of the biggest goals and one of the biggest accomplishments — to create a coating that didn’t have any of these VOC or HAP (hazardous air pollutants)-type solvents in the coating, and we have successfully done that.
Doug Glenn: That’s good. Especially in the ‘green movement’ that’s going on today, that’s obviously very important.
What coating solution should heat treaters be looking at, in the near future? Is it just VOC stuff, the lack of VOC, or what?
Mark Ratliff: Well, yes, of course. I mean, we’re proud to say that all of our coatings are virtually VOC-free. We are still making the original green label because some customers are not happy to change, so we still offer that. But every single one of our coatings right now have a less than 10 gram/liter VOC threshold, and we’re really quite proud of that.
But, you know, as you’re talking about new coatings coming to the market, we’re coming out with the plasma nitriding stop-off. But we’re also looking into a stop-off for salt bath carburizing. We’ve had a couple people reach out to us, just recently, asking, “Do you have a coating that we can use to paint on the parts that go into a salt bath carburizing operation?”
Doug Glenn: That would be interesting because there is a bit of abrasion going on there, yes?
Mark Ratliff: There is, correct.
Final Questions: Supply Chain, Technical Assistance, and Target Markets (14:51)
Doug Glenn: Now, that’s interesting.
I have two additional questions for you. One has to deal with supply chain issues. Have you guys had any issues with being able to deliver quickly or anything of that sort, ala Covid?
Mark Ratliff: Sure. Right after Covid, we had trouble getting the main ingredient for the carburizing stop-off coating which is boric acid. Currently, I have three suppliers that supply that to me, and there was a point in time where none of them could get the material because the manufacturer of this product was not delivering east of the Mississippi. So, I had to do several days of researching and scrounging around, and I found a distributor in California that said, “Yes, we can get it to you, but you have to buy a whole truckload, which we were very happy to do.”
Doug Glenn: Yes, you take what you can get, at that point.
But no issues now?
Mark Ratliff: No, everything is pretty much back to normal. I mean, gone are the days where you could pick up the phone and get material delivered to you in three days, but most of our raw materials get delivered in under two weeks, and we keep a pretty adequate inventory of all of our raw materials so that we don’t run out of anything.
Doug Glenn: So, you get the raw materials. Do you do your own formulations there? I mean, do you actually do the mixing and all that stuff?
Mark Ratliff: We do. Everything is all done here, in-house, correct.
Doug Glenn: Finally, technical assistance and competency on your guys’ part: Do you have people on your staff — yourself or others — that if a customer calls in with an issue, you can help talk them through it?
“[Look] at the copperplating method: It’s, number one, very expensive, and number two, from what I’ve been told, it’s not very environmentally friendly — you’re working with a lot of hazardous ingredients, hazardous waste."
— Mark Ratliff, AVION Manufacturing
Mark Ratliff: Absolutely. So, I’m the “go to guy” here at AVION. If anyone has any technical questions, I’m the one that’s going to be answering them. And if it’s something where I need to come out to the plant, I’ll get in my car or get on a plane and visit that customer, if the quantity of it dictates that.
Doug Glenn: Yes, sure; it’s got to be a good business opportunity, obviously. But I’m sure you can use the phone to answer questions too.
Mark Ratliff: Yes, most of the time it’s by phone.
Doug Glenn: So, Mark, in the marketplace, is there an ideal client, someone who maybe should be considering stop-off paints that isn’t currently using it? Is there someone out there that you would say, “Hey, you know, if you’re doing this, maybe you ought to think about stop-off paints, if you’re not already doing them.”
Mark Ratliff: Well, I would certainly still target those that are copperplating. Look at the copperplating method: It’s, number one, very expensive, and number two, from what I’ve been told, it’s not very environmentally friendly — you’re working with a lot of hazardous ingredients, hazardous waste. So, those are the types of people that I will continue to target for stop-off coatings.
Doug Glenn: Well, Mark, listen, that’s great. Hopefully, this has been a good primer for people who didn’t know what stop-off paints/coatings were, and hopefully they can get ahold of you if they need something. I appreciate you being with us.
Mark Ratliff: Okay, thank you very much, Doug. I appreciate it myself.
About the Expert
Mark Ratliff started at Avion Manufacturing in 1994 after earning his bachelor’s of science degree in Chemical Engineering at the University of Cincinnati. Prior to getting his degree, Mark spent many of his summer breaks working for his father at Shore Metal Treating where he gained a good deal of knowledge about the heat treating industry.
How long have you been heat treating automotive gears? Which thermal processing techniques do your operations gravitate towards? In this best of the web article, uncover some of the common heat treatment functions and the properties they create in gears. Let us know what you think of this general overview of the world of heat treating gears in our Reader Feedback form!
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Additionally, when you read to the end of the article, future trends that we can anticipate for heat treaters in the automotive industry are offered; as one might guess, they include digital and energy-saving technologies.
An excerpt: “Automotive gear heat treatment (process) includes two aspects: firstly, conventional heat treatment such as annealing, normalizing, quenching, tempering, and quenching and tempering; secondly, surface heat treatment, which encompasses methods like surface quenching (e.g., induction quenching, laser quenching) and chemical heat treatment (e.g., carburizing, carbonitriding, nitriding, nitrocarburizing).”
Case hardening is an essential process for many heat treating operations, but knowing the different types and functions of each is far from intuitive.
In this best of the web article, discover the differences between carburization, carbonitriding, nitriding, and nitrocarburizing, as well as what questions you should ask before considering case hardening. You will encounter technical descriptions and expert advice to guide your selection of which case hardening process will be most beneficial for your specific heat treat needs.
An excerpt:
Case hardening heat treatments, which includes nitriding, nitrocarburizing, carburizing, and carbonitriding, alter a part’s chemical composition and focus on its surface properties. These processes create hardened surface layers ranging from 0.01 to 0.25 in. deep, depending on processing times and temperatures. Making the hardened layer thicker incurs higher costs due to additional processing times, but the part’s extended wear life can quickly justify additional processing costs. Material experts can apply these processes to provide the most cost-effective parts for specific applications.
Nitriding and nitrocarburizing may be familiar terms in the industry, but which process — ion/plasma nitriding, gas nitriding, or nitrocarburizing — is best for your heat treat operations?
In this best of the web article from Advanced Heat Treat Corp., discover the specifics of each of these surface treatments and compare their benefits for wear resistance and corrosion resistance. Explore also the innovative technologies developed by the North American heat treater for optimization of these processes. for optimization of these processes. You will encounter technical diagrams, high quality images of nitrided/nitrocarburized parts, and in-depth technical comparisons of these processes.
An excerpt:
Well-controlled nitriding significantly enhances wear resistance and lowers coefficient of friction in many applications of steel components. For certain steels, nitrided samples show even better tribological behavior than carburized samples of the same steels.
Are your brake rotors heat treated? Travel back in time to discover how ferritic nitrocarburizing (FNC) became the heat treatment of choice for automakers’ brake rotors and why the tip-up furnace forever altered the production process for this part.
This Technical Tuesday article is drawn from Heat Treat Today's February Air & Atmosphere Furnace Systems print edition.If you have any information of your own about heat treating brake rotors, our editors would be interested in sharing it online at www.heattreattoday.com. Email Bethany Leone at bethany@heattreattoday.com with your own ideas!
The Problem: Brake Rotor Corrosion
Michael Mouilleseaux General Manager at Erie Steel, Ltd. Sourced from the author
In the early 2000s, corrosion was one of the top three issues that U.S. automotive manufacturers found negatively affected the perception of the quality of their cars. Brake rotors are made of cast iron. These components sit out in the elements, and in places like the U.S. Midwest where salt is often used on the roads, unprotected steel or iron will corrode or rust. Even on the coast, there is salt water in the air.
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What does rusting cause? The rotor rusts, and first, the cosmetics are negatively affected (i.e., rusty appearance). But more importantly, the first time you step on the brakes, it squeals like a pig, the vehicle shudders, and the driver feels pulsing in the pedal. He’ll also feel it in the steering wheel because the amount of rust coating one area is different from the amount of rust that’s on another. So, these brand new, forty- to seventy-thousand-dollar cars have orange rust over the brake rotor and a shaky drive. . . it’s not a good look!
Now, this is just a superficial coating of rust that will eventually abrade away; the rotor will look alright, the vehicle will stop better, and it won’t squeal. However, since the rust on the rotor wears off unevenly, the car may never have smooth braking.
A Move to FNC
In the early 2000s, all the big players were looking to FNC (ferritic nitrocarburizing) as a solution to corrosion, including Bosch Braking Systems, Ford, General Motors, Akebono, and the truck manufacturers. FNC was becoming popular since the process adds a metallurgical layer — called the “white layer” or “compound zone” — to the part, providing corrosion resistance and the bonus of improving wear.
Source: Oleksandr Delyk/Adobe Stock
To the OEMs, the benefits were perceived as:
The corrosion issue had an answer.
The life of the rotor doubled from roughly 40,000 to 80,000 miles. Although that meant half as many aftermarket brake jobs compared to before, consumers perceived it as a real advantage.
The rotors generated less dust. Brakes generate dust particles as the result of abrasion of the pads and the rotors. This particulate dust has been identified as both an environmental and a health concern. Now, flash forward to 2022: Electric vehicles are largely displacing the need to control emissions from ICE (internal combustion engine) vehicles. So, the new European standard on vehicle emissions implemented a requirement to control this dust that is harmful to the environment and which EV and traditional brake systems can emit.
But there were certain technical and practical challenges that automotive manufacturers faced when trying to implement this process at scale.
#1 Distortion. Brake rotors may distort during FNC. Since rotors are (gray iron) castings, the process temperature for FNC may stress relieve the rotor, causing it to change shape or distort, rendering it unusable as a disc brake rotor. It was determined that if the rotor castings were stress relieved prior to machining and FNC, the distortion issue was rendered moot.
#2 Loss of Necessary Friction. FNC gives the white layer on the surface of a part with a diffusion zone underneath. The compound zone has a very low coefficient of friction, which means excellent wear properties. However, manufacturers want friction between the rotor and the brake pads to slow the car down. Reducing the friction on the rotors extends the braking distance of the car.
". . .[M]anufacturers want friction between the rotor and the brake pads to slow the car down." Source: Unsplash.com/Craig MorolfLet me illustrate this: I ferritic nitrocarburized a set of brake discs for Bosch Braking Systems, which eventually went to Germany and then on a vehicle. The customer absolutely loved the corrosion resistance, but when it was time for the downhill brake test, the car went straight through an instrument house because the brakes couldn’t stop the car! Lesson: For rotors treated with FNC, the brake pads need to be made from a different frictional material!
#3 Cost. Overcoming the technical issues is simple. Stress relieving the casting at FNC temperatures before machining it would help the parts machine better and would eliminate distortion. Modifying the FNC process could reduce the depth of the white layer and, paired with the correct friction material, the acceptable braking capabilities were restored. Yet these additional steps presented a new challenge: higher costs.
The practical constraints of FNC in conventional batch or pit furnaces strained efforts to be cost-effective. The load (size) capacity of the conventional equipment, in conjunction with the time constraints of the FNC process presented a dilemma, as the OEMs’ benchmark was about one dollar per rotor.
Here Comes the Tip-Up
With traditional furnaces for FNC, there was just no way to reach the economics that were necessary for it. A bigger pit furnace might be the way to go, but they really weren’t big enough. So, here comes the tip-up.
Traditionally, a tip-up furnace has been used for processes with just air, no atmosphere. With direct fired burners, the furnace is used for tempering, stress relieving, annealing, and normalizing. Everything loads into the box, gets fired, and unloads, similar to a car-bottom furnace. With the appropriate external handling systems parts could be retrieved from the furnace and then quenched. This additional process increased the usefulness of the equipment and allowed for the processing of tubes, bars, big castings. . . big forgings for the oil industry and the like.
The question of how to heat treat brake rotors on a large scale still needed to be answered. It required a large, tightly sealed furnace with atmospheric integrity for excellent temperature uniformity. In ferritic nitrocarburizing, the processing range is about 950°F to 1050°F. It is well known that properties vary significantly across the temperature range. And they needed to be optimized to create the appropriate frictional properties for the rotors.
So, the answer was: Let’s make a tip-up furnace that can be sealed for atmospheric integrity, has the appropriate temperature uniformity, and can circulate gas evenly. A lot of this would have to be iterative — create, test, compare, repeat.
Tip-up furnace from Gasbarre Thermal Processing Systems Source: Gasbarre Thermal Processing Systems
The development of the perfect tip-up was essentially the work of one furnace manufacturer and one heat treater who together changed the industry.
American Knowhow Makes the Perfect Tip-Up
In the early 2000s, heat treaters worked with OEMs to develop a cost-efficient process in a tip-up. Manufacturers and service providers tested different methods, including atmosphere FNC and salt bath FNC.
By 2009, the perfect atmosphere furnace was complete and high volume brake rotors began to be processed for General Motors. The furnace manufacturer was JL Becker, Co., acquired by Gasbarre in 2011. The commercial heat treater was Woodworth, Inc., located in Flint, MI. Together, they spent a lot of time and money looking into FNC and figuring out how to make it work in a tip-up furnace.
General Motors was the first one to get on board, utilizing the FNC processed rotors on their pickup trucks and big SUVs, like the Escalade and Tahoe. Ford was not far behind using it on their F150 pickup truck. I was shocked the first time I saw the commercial: a Silverado pickup truck, out in the snow, and the speaker saying, “We now have an 80,000-mile brake system because of a heat treating process called FNC!”
It’s a great story of American knowhow and a collaborative effort between someone who saw a need and someone else who saw the way. To this day, if you want to get a replacement set of brake rotors for your car, go to a place like AutoZone; they will tell you that the difference in cost between the OEM parts and an off-brand is the fact that the off-brand is not heat treated.
About the author: Michael Mouilleseaux has been at Erie Steel, Ltd. in Toledo, OH, since 2006 with previous metallurgical experience at New Process Gear in Syracuse, NY, and as the Director of Technology in Marketing at FPM Heat Treating LLC in Elk Grove, IL. Having graduated from the University of Michigan with a degree in Metallurgical Engineering, Michael has proved his expertise in the fi eld of heat treat, co-presenting at the Heat Treat 2019 show and currently serving on the Board of Trustees at the Metal Treating Institute.
Get ready to watch, listen, and learn about the three most underrated heat treat processes in today’s episode. This conversation marks the continuation of Lunch & Learn, aHeat Treat Radio podcast series where an expert in the industry breaks down a heat treat fundamental with Doug Glenn, publisher of Heat Treat Today and host of the podcast, and the Heat Treat Today team.
Below, you can watch the video, listen to the podcast by clicking on the audio play button, or read an edited transcript.
The following transcript has been edited for your reading enjoyment.
Doug Glenn: There are some underdog heat treat processes out here. I’d like to get to three today. What do you think is number one?
Michael Mouilleseaux: Let’s start with stress relieving. All ferrous materials, all steels, during the course of manufacturing or processing, have some residual stress that is left in them. A common thought about stress relieving is you have a weldment, and you stress relieve it so that the weldment stays.
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There is a mechanical action in the material during any cold working operation (cold forging, stamping, fine planking, etc.) because it's done at ambient temperature. Those all impart stress on the part.
Machining, turning, grinding. . . all of those things impart stress into a part. How is that relieved? It can be done thermally, or it can also be done mechanically. Thermally is the most common of them.
What I would like to talk about is not so much stress relieving weldments, it is stress relieving manufactured components. If you’re going to have a comprehensive analysis of the heat treat operation that needs to be performed on a manufactured component, a gear, a shaft, something of that nature, they need to take into consideration what are the prior existing stresses in the part. Then what effect is that going to have on the part?
Many times during the course of my career, I’ve had a customer come to me and say, “The part I gave you was correct, and you’ve given it back to me and then fill-in-the-blank. It’s warped, it’s changed size, it’s shrunk, all of those things.” What have you done in your heat-treating process? You have to back up all the way to the beginning of how this part was manufactured and deal with all of those component steps in order to answer that question properly.
Stress relieving is one of the answers. It’s not the answer. It’s not the only answer, but it is one of them that has to be considered.
"Stress Relieving Tips from Heat TreatToday"
Doug Glenn: For those of us who might not know what a “stress” is in a part, can you simply explain? For example: a coat hanger. If I bend it, is that inducing stress? Is that what’s causing stress? What makes stress in a part?
Michael Mouilleseaux: You’ve cold-worked the part. In the cold working, you’ve passed the yield strength. You’ve bent it, and it’s not going to snap back. You’ve cold-worked it enough that you’ve actually got plastic deformation, and there is stress.
Doug Glenn: That’s one way we get stress. That’s the mechanical way of getting stress.
Michael Mouilleseaux: Right. Now, consider stamping. Even though a stamping is flat (because the die has come down in the perimeter of that and maybe internal holes and things), where you’ve sheared the material, you’ve imparted stress there.
If you harden it or case harden it or whatever you might do with that stamping, you have to take into consideration how much stress is there. If I don’t relieve it, is it going to do that at some point in the part’s future that’s going to be detrimental to the part?
Doug Glenn: When you get a stress in a part, that’s the area that’s a weak spot, right? It potentially could break before other parts?
Michael Mouilleseaux: At the absolute extreme, that could happen, yes. More often than not, what you have is an area that’s been cold worked, and it’s been deformed. When it stresses, it’s going to somewhat relieve itself. It may not relieve itself 100% all the way, but it will somewhat relieve itself. Whatever shape of form you’ve put that part into; it’s not going to hold that form forever.
Alyssa Bootsma: You mentioned that stress relieving is not the only way to alleviate the problems. What would be some alternatives to stress relieving?
Michael Mouilleseaux: Thermal stress relieving is, by far, the most common. There is a process that’s called vibratory stress relieving. In order to relieve the stresses in a part, you have to impart some energy in it. Something between 800 and 1200 Fahrenheit is typically used in stress relieving. That thermal energy goes into the part and relieves the stresses.
You could also do that mechanically by a high frequency vibration. It’s not as common. I believe that it’s actually a propriety process, if not patented. It would be for something that you did not want to subject to 800-1000 degrees Fahrenheit because that doesn’t come for free. Obviously, in a ferrous material at that temperature, you’re going to have some oxide forming on the part. You may or may not be able to utilize the part in its final function with that oxide on it.
Those are typically the two ways to do it. Can it occur naturally over time? Yes, but none of us have that kind of time.
Alyssa Bootsma: You did mention how it doesn’t necessarily mean that it’s more likely to break if that part is not relieved, but what parts would suffer the most if this process was done incorrectly?
Michael Mouilleseaux: Probably weldments. The detrimental effects of not having stress relieved of weldment would be the most significant. In welding there is a whole range of temperatures proximate to the weld — everything from room temperature to maybe 3000 degrees. That whole range of things changes the structure of the steel.
Leaving it in that condition makes it susceptible to any number of things — embrittlement, accelerated corrosion, and others. There is every reason to stress relieve something like that and almost no reason not to.
Doug Glenn: That’s weldment. Do they do a stress relieve after a braze as well, or is that not as common?
Michael Mouilleseaux: Typically not. The reason for that is, in brazing, the entire assembly is brought up to the same temperature. Then it’s cooled at the same rate.
Bethany Leone: I have two brief questions: 1. How long does stress relieving typically take? 2. Would we see the effects of incorrect stress relieving, or failure to, once something goes to quench?
Michael Mouilleseaux: The first question — would you necessarily see a failure? Those would be extremes. I’m more familiar with stress relieving fabricated components that are machined. Take a gear. They forge a blank and maybe machine out the center of the gear, machine the exterior of the gear, cut the teeth in a shaping operation (a hobbing operation or skiving or other ways of generating teeth).
"You have this part, and it needs to be heat treated. To assume that all of those machining operations would have no effect upon that whatsoever is not a good thought."
Then comes a comprehensive program of evaluating how best to heat treat a part. It doesn’t matter if it’s out of a medium carbon alloy steel or it’s a low alloy steel and we’re going to carburize it, what’s critical is that it’s going to get heated. The material is going to transform into austenite and cool rapidly or quench it. That’s what’s going to cause the hardening operation on the part.
In doing that, there are going to be changes in size. In hardening a part, you get a volumetric expansion. Thin sections are not going to expand as much as larger sections. A misnomer is, “You shrunk the hole.” You haven’t shrunk the hole! The material around the hole has expanded, the exterior portion of that area has increased, and the interior portion of that has decreased.
If you have a spline in that hole, now you’re on for something else because their teeth form in that spline. If it’s in a long section, then how uniform it’s been hardened has to do with whether or not it goes out of round or their taper. There are any number of things there. Those are all critical to the operation of this gear.
But what we have to take into consideration is the broaching operation. We drill a hole, and we put a broach bar through it and cut all of these teeth. All of that has imparted stress in the part.
One of the preliminary things that needs to be done is you stress relieve the part and give it back to the manufacturer. They measure it and say, “Oh, oh, it changed!” That change is not something the heat treater can do anything about. That’s the physics of what happens when you work-harden a part. This all has to be taken into consideration and addressed before we talk about what’s the heat treat distortion.
Bethany Leone: And the other question I had: How long does it take to stress relieve?
Michael Mouilleseaux: Typically, if it’s held at an hour or two at temperature, it’s thought that 1000 degrees for an hour at temperature will relieve most stresses.
Now, in a component part, we’re going to go higher in temperature. Although we’re not going to go high enough to austenitize the part, we’re going to go high enough in temperature that we know we’re going to relieve it.
Michael Mouilleseaux: They’re cousins. Stress relieving, the implication is that you are doing that simply to relieve prior existing stresses. In annealing, the implication is that you are going to reduce the hardness of the microstructure for the purposes of machining or forming. In annealing, there’s subcritical and supercritical and a hundred different flavors of that.
Doug Glenn: I’m trying to get a sense of what percentage of heat treating is stress relieving. Is it super popular? It seems to me it would be very common.
Michael Mouilleseaux: Interestingly enough, I’m going to say that the majority of the gearing product that we do, we incorporate a stress relief in the initial stages of heat treating. By putting the part in and raising the temperature to a stress relieving temperature and then taking it up into the austenitizing temperature, you’re not shocking the part. You’re not just taking it from room temperature to carburizing temperature or hardening temperature, and thereby you’re reducing the thermal stresses. So, you’re not imparting any more.
Doug Glenn: Stress relieving may often be done as a part of another process?
Michael Mouilleseaux: It can be, definitely.
Doug Glenn: Let’s move on to the second forgotten heat treatment.
Michael Mouilleseaux: I don’t know about forgotten. I’m going to say that it’s getting short shrift, and that is conventional atmosphere carburizing. What’s sexy in heat treating? It’s low pressure carburizing and gas quenching. It’s growing very rapidly and it’s being used in a lot of applications.
We’re subject to the same ills that Mark Twain identified years ago, and that is, “To a man with a hammer, every problem looks like a nail.” Low pressure carburizing and gas quenching, they can save every distortion issue that’s ever been known to man in heat treating, and they don’t. They are other tools in the box, applicable to a lot of application. They are great processes, very targeted and specific. You know, sometimes you need a screwdriver instead of a hammer.
Conventional carburizing: It’s been around for a hundred years. What’s different today than what it ever was? Certainly it has everything to do with the control systems that are being used to control it. It’s eminently more controllable now than it has ever been. It is a precision operation, and it has many applications. By the way, it’s far more cost effective than carburizing would be. In vacuum carburizing, the cost is multiple; is it two, three or four times more expensive? It depends on how you calculate cost of capital and all of those things. But it’s a multiple, more expensive than conventional carburizing.
Doug Glenn: To do vacuum carburizing?
Michael Mouilleseaux: To do vacuum carburizing, yes. Should it be used in every application? I’m going to say no. Are there definite applications? Definitely.
Doug Glenn: Conventional carburizing, atmosphere carburizing is another area largely forgotten. I know it’s quite popular, but it’s not getting a lot of discussion these days.
Michael Mouilleseaux: Right. Any time there is an issue with a carburized part, everyone knows to ask the question, “Why don’t you vacuum carburize it?” The answer to that is, “Let’s solve the problem before we decide what it is that we need to do.”
Karen Gantzer: Mike: At a very basic level, can you explain why do heat treaters use endothermic gas?
Michael Mouilleseaux: In atmosphere carburizing, we need a method of conveying carbon to the part so that we can enrich it; that’s what carburizing is. The carburizing portion of the atmosphere in endothermic gas is carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide — that’s the reaction at the surface of the part — the carbon diffuses into the part. That’s how you generate a case in the part.
It’s a relatively inexpensive form of carburizing. You use natural gas and air in what we call a “generator”, and that’s how endothermic gas is generated. Then, it’s put into the furnace. There’s almost no air in a furnace. People think you’re going to look in a furnace, and you’re going to see flame. You never do because the amount of oxygen in the furnace is measured in parts per million. You put additional natural gas to boost the carburizing potential of the atmosphere, and that’s what allows you to diffuse carbon into the part. That is the case hardening process.
Doug Glenn: Conventional carburizing is done in a protective atmosphere, typically as an endothermic atmosphere which is rich in carbon monoxide.
Michael Mouilleseaux: Yes.
Doug Glenn: A lot of times we’re worried about oxygen in the process because of potential oxidation. Why is it that we use a gas that has oxygen in it to infuse carbon? I know it’s got carbon, but it’s also one C and one O, right? Don’t we run into problems of potential oxidation?
"Comparative Study of Carburizing vs. Induction Hardening of Gears"
Michael Mouilleseaux: In endothermic gas there is hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon monoxide, and there are fractional percentages of carbon dioxide and some other things. The hydrogen is what scrubs the part; that’s what kind of takes care of all of the excess oxygen. The nitrogen is just a carrier portion of it, and the carbon monoxide is what is the active ingredient, if you will, in the carburizing process.
The carbon diffuses into the part. If there is an oxygen, it’s going to combine with the hydrogen. Preferentially, you’re not going to have any free oxygen in the furnace, but you can have a little water vapor. One of the ways of measuring the carbon potential in the furnace is a dewpoint meter. The dewpoint meter is measuring the temperature at which the gas precipitates out, and that’s a monitor or a measure of the carbon potential.
Doug Glenn: A dewpoint analyzer helps you know what the carbon potential is.
Michael Mouilleseaux: Yes. It’s not as good as an oxygen analyzer.
Doug Glenn: An oxygen probe.
Michael Mouilleseaux: The oxygen probe is in the furnace, measuring constantly. You get a picture; you have continuous information. It’s not that there aren’t continuous dewpoint analyzers, but you have to take a sample from the furnace. It has to be taken to an analyzer wherein it is then tested. Best case scenario is you have both of them and you compare the two of them. That gives you a really great picture of what the atmosphere conditions are in the furnace.
Alyssa Bootsma: For a bit of background knowledge: What is the difference between endothermic gas and exothermic gas?
Michael Mouilleseaux: Endothermic gas has 40% hydrogen and 20% carbon monoxide. 60% of it is what you would call a reducing atmosphere. The way that you make endothermic atmosphere is 2.7 parts of natural gas and one part of air. You heat it up to 1900 degrees, and it’s put through a nickel catalyst. You strip off the hydrogens. The gas dissociates, and that’s what results.
Exothermic gas is six parts of air in one part of natural gas. You only have 10 or 15% hydrogen. Although it’s not an oxidizing atmosphere, it’s very mildly reducing.
It can be used in annealing, clean annealing. If you’re annealing at 12-1300 degrees or more or in that ballpark, that kind of an atmosphere is going to keep the work clean. If you did it in air, it would scale.
Bethany Leone: Is there an industry (automotive, aerospace, energy) that it would be most helpful for those parts to be typically atmosphere carburized, and/or is it just generally helpful for all types of industries?
Michael Mouilleseaux: First of all, the transportation industry is the lion’s share of heat treating — automotive, truck, aircraft. Atmosphere carburizing is extremely popular and commonplace in those industries.
If we said that we were going to have a seminar and I’m going to talk about atmosphere carburizing. Somebody else is going to talk about low pressure carburizing in a vacuum furnace. Everybody’s going to go over to the other room. Folks feel they already know what this is all about, and they know what all the problems are. They think that the vacuum carburizing is going to solve all of them.
When you work with the proper kinds of controls, the proper kinds of furnace conditions, the right way of fixturing parts and cleaning them ahead of time, you can have extremely consistent results. You can have extremely clean parts, and you can have very good performance from these things.
What the Europeans call “serial production”: we run millions of gears per year, and we have very consistent case steps in hardnesses as a result of good practice. All of these things need to be monitored and controlled and taken care of. But the results are also very consistent and very predictable.
Doug Glenn: Interesting. And it’s more cost-effective, I’m guessing. Conventional atmosphere carburizing, on a per part basis, is going to be substantially less expensive.
Michael Mouilleseaux: We’ve looked at it. Is it two times, is it three times, is it four times more expensive to vacuum carburize a part? The answer is yes. The question is, does that component justify that? There are any number of them where it does.
Doug Glenn: Where it does justify it?
Michael Mouilleseaux: Yes, absolutely.
Doug Glenn: Let’s go on to #3, the third underdog in heat treating.
Michael Mouilleseaux: Number three is marquenching. Marquenching, martempering, and hot oil quenching are in the family that describes this process.
Martempering is different than just quenching in oil, quenching in regular fast oil. Regular oil is going to be 100 vis, and it’s going to be from 90 degrees to 150 degrees. All kinds of low hardenability, or parts that don’t have a lot of adherent alloy in them, you utilize that so that they can be fully hardened. But components that are distortion-critical, quenched in that manner in regular oil, there is going to be a high degree of distortion. How is that addressed? It’s addressed in marquenching.
Let’s take an example of a carburized gear. A carburized case is heated to 16-1700 degrees and carburized. Best practice would say that I’m going to reduce the temperature before I quench it, and then I’m going to quench it in oil. Do I understand that: I have to have loading that spaces the part; and the parts need to be fixtured in such a way that, physically, they don’t impede on each other; and I get full flow of oil, and all of those things? The answer is yes, yes, and yes.
The martensite starts to form in the case at, let’s say, 450 and it’s plus or minus 25 or 30 degrees or so. Take that part and put it into the range where the martensite starts to form, and hold it at that temperature and let the entire part cool down to that 450 degrees where the martensite is starting to form. Then we remove the part from the furnace and allow it to cool in air to room temperature. At that point, the cooling rate is much lower than it it’s going to be where you’re conducting that in a liquid medium. Because of that, the stresses are going to be less, the distortion is going to be less. That is a strategy for reducing distortion.
You ask, “Why do you need to do that.?” Again, the man with the hammer: I’m going to gas quench this part because I have the opportunity to gas quench it, and the gas quenching doesn’t come for free. The shadowing effects of a gas flow has to be taken into consideration, orientation of the parts. There are a number of things that need to be taken into consideration.[blocktext align="left"]There are a number of applications where in marquenching a part, the distortion can be controlled. We process a lot of gears, and we maintain 20/30 microns of total distortion in ID bores on gears. It is a viable way of controlling distortion.[/blocktext]
Doug Glenn: We say marquenching.
Mike Mouilleseaux: Or martempering or hot oil quenching.
Doug Glenn: The “mar” part of that comes from martensite? I want have you explain what exactly martensite is. But is that where it comes from?
Mike Mouilleseaux: Yes. We’re getting right into the start of the martensite transformation.
Doug Glenn: There are different microstructures in metals. Austenite is pretty much the highest temperature, and it’s where the molecules are almost “free floating.” They’re not liquid, but they can move around. (This is very layman’s terms.) That’s austenite.
What causes distortion is when you’re cooling from austenite down to the point where that thing is, kind of, locked in; that can cause distortion in there because the molecules are still free to move. Some areas cool faster than others, and when you have that, you can get twists and turns or bulges. Once it gets down to the martensite temperature, that’s when things are, locked in. Is that fair?
Michael Mouilleseaux: The other thing that happens is you’re going from a cubic structure to a tetragonal structure. You’re asking, “Why are we there?” That’s where the expansion comes. The close-packed tetragonal structure takes up more volume than the austenitic or cubic structure. That’s where the volumetric expansion takes place.
Doug Glenn: At a higher temperature, the molecules are arranged in such a way that they take up more space; there’s more space between them.
In the cooling process with marquenching, if you bring it down just to the point where it’s, what Mike referred to as, the ‘martensite start temperature,’ that’s the temperature where things are just locking in. But it’s not so drastic that you’re dropping way down in temperature so that there are larger temperature differentials and things are really starting to get torqued out of contortion because of the difference in the cooling rates in the part.
Michael Mouilleseaux: The other part of that is that the formation of martensite is not time dependent. It’s not like you would have to hold it at 400 degrees for a longer period of time than you would at 200 degrees to get martensite. At 400 degrees, you’ve got some percentage of transformation. Say, it’s 30%. The transformation is temperature dependent. Because it’s temperature dependent, you can take it out and slow down the cooling rate. Then, as the transformation takes place, there is less stress, and if there’s less stress, then there is less distortion.
Again, it’s typically going to be distortion-sensitive parts.
The simplest geometric shape is a sphere. There aren’t any changes in section size in a sphere. It can be rotated, and you’ve got the same section size. You don’t have the kind of thing where one area is cooling more rapidly than another.
A major source of distortion is varying mass. Like a hole in a block: one portion of the block is two inches wide, and another portion is an inch wide. To think that that hole is going to stay straight all by itself, that won’t happen because there’s more mass around one end. By marquenching it and slowing down the transformation, you’re giving yourself an opportunity to reduce the amount of stress that’s generated. It’s the volumetric expansion in the thicker section than in the thinner section. Your opportunity to maintain that hole so that it stays round and it stays straight is much better. Otherwise, the thin section is going to completely transform before the thicker section does.
Doug Glenn: Transform to martensite or whatever, yes.
Michael Mouilleseaux: The extreme case in that is if that happens rapidly enough, and there’s a large enough differential in section size, the part cracks.
Doug Glenn: That’s the nightmare for the heat treater.
Guest Michael Mouilleseaux with the Heat TreatToday team
Bethany Leone: Are there any instances where it’s definite that another way to manage distortion would be better than marquenching?
Michael Mouilleseaux: Sure. Again, what’s currently sexy in this industry is gas quenching things. I’m going to say that cylindrical parts that have a thin wall, when properly gas quenched, will give you better distortion control, better size control than it would if you’d quench them in a liquid medium such as oil. We don’t want to forget that marquenching can be performed in salt, as well.
If we were going to talk about a fourth one, it might be salt quenching because that’s one of those things that’s not commonly utilized. There is some real opportunity with it.
Doug Glenn: Mike, thanks for ‘dumbing this down’ for us. We appreciate it! It’s sometimes a struggle to state things simply, but you did a great job.
Are there any closing thoughts you’d like to leave with us regarding the nearly-forgotten, popular heat treat processes, or anything else?
Michael Mouilleseaux: How about the combination of all three that I just spoke about?
Doug Glenn: Okay. Well, how about that?
Michael Mouilleseaux: I’ve got a distortion sensitive gear, and we’ve figured out that there is some stress in the part as a result of the final machining operation. We stress relieve the part, we carburize it conventionally, and then we marquench it. Those gears that I spoke about where we’ve got 20 or 30 microns of ID bore distortion — that’s exactly what’s done there.
Doug Glenn: Okay. Stress relieve first, conventional carburize, and then marquench. A combination of three.
Mike, thank you very much. This has been really helpful and it’s been good to learn a little bit on our Lunch &Learn. We’ll hope to have you back sometime to make other things understandable for us.
About the expert: Michael Mouilleseaux is general manager at Erie Steel LTD. Mike has been at Erie Steel in Toledo, OH since 2006 with previous metallurgical experience at New Process Gear in Syracuse, NY and as the Director of Technology in Marketing at FPM Heat Treating LLC in Elk Grove, IL. Having graduated from the University of Michigan with a degree in Metallurgical Engineering, Mike has proved his expertise in the field of heat treat, co-presenting at the 2019 Heat Treat show and currently serving on the Board of Trustees at the Metal Treating Institute.
To create a durable and corrosion resistant barrel, guns in the 19th century were made with blackening, a process related to heat treat. This application also increased the general look, reduced light reflection, and increased wear resistance in general.
This best of the web will cover general blackening of ferrous metals and summarize key points about nitriding and nitrocarburizing with blackening.
An excerpt:
"There are three types of blackening in common use: Caustic Black Oxidizing, Room Temperature Blackening and Low-temperature Black Oxide."
What's the future of ferritic nitrocarburizing and how does it compare to other hardening processes? When it comes to metal hardening, there are many variations on central processes, including recent innovations in how to apply hardening processes.
This Technical Tuesday brings you a quick overview of how hardness technologies differ, specifically nitriding and FNC, and how certain heat treaters have developed these specific hardness technologies.
Understanding the Various Hardening Processes
If you want to know the future, the best you can do is understand the past and present. Let’s begin with looking at the most common hardening processing methods. Here are a few excerpts from “Elevate Your Knowledge: 5 Need-to-Know Case Hardening Processes” by Mike Harrison, engineering manager of Industrial Furnace Systems Division at Gasbarre Thermal Processing Systems:
Read more about these 5 processes in Mike Harrison's article. Click to read.
Carburizing: “Gas carburizing is a process where carbon is added to the material’s surface. The process is typically performed between 1550-1750°F, with carburizing times commonly between 2-8 hours [this spec is disputed, and times may run up to 24 hours]; of course, these values can vary depending on the material, process, and equipment. The most common atmosphere used for atmosphere gas carburizing is endothermic gas with additions of either natural gas or propane to increase the carbon potential of the furnace atmosphere.”
Nitriding: “Gas nitriding is a process where nitrogen is added to the material surface. The process is typically performed between 925-1050°F; cycle times can be quite long as the diffusion of the nitrogen is slow at these temperatures, with nitriding times typically ranging from 16 – 96 hours or more depending on the material and case depth required. Nitriding can be performed in either a single or two-stage process and has the potential to produce two types of case, the first being a nitrogen-rich compound layer (or “white layer”) at the surface that is extremely hard and wear-resistant but also very brittle.”
Carbonitriding: “Despite its name, carbonitriding is more closely related to carburizing than it is to nitriding. Carbonitriding is a process where both carbon and nitrogen are added to the material surface. This process is typically performed in a range of 1450-1600°F [this spec is disputed, and temperatures may go up to 1650°F] and generally produces a shallower case depth than carburizing.”
Ferritic Nitrocarburizing (FNC): “In the author’s opinion, just like with carbonitriding, ferritic nitrocarburizing (FNC) is named incorrectly as it is more closely related to nitriding than it is with carburizing. FNC is a process that is still mostly nitrogen-based but with a slight carbon addition as well. The added carbon helps promote compound layer formation, particularly in plain carbon and low alloy steels that do not contain significant nitride-forming alloys. This process is typically performed in a range of 1025-1125°F with cycle times much shorter than nitriding, typically 1-4 hours.”
Low Pressure Carburizing (LPC): “Low-pressure carburizing (LPC), or vacuum carburizing, is a variation of carburizing performed in a vacuum furnace. Instead of the atmospheres mentioned previously, a partial pressure of hydrocarbon gas (such as acetylene or propane) is used that directly dissociates at the part surface to provide carbon for diffusion. After LPC, the workload is transferred to a quench system that could use oil or high-pressure gas, typically nitrogen.”
Nitriding
Learn more about the basics of hardening at Heat Treat Radio. Click to listen,
Gas nitriding, a process over 100 years old, is a hardening process that involves diffusing nitrogen into the surface of steel to create a hard, wear-resistant case. Among many benefits, the part will have enhanced fatigue properties, anti-galling properties under load, and a resistance to softening at elevated temperature. This makes it an excellent choice for the aerospace industry.
There is some recent history regarding problems related to the “white layer”. In a typical microstructure, the “white layer” is a nitrogen-rich surface layer and the diffusion layer exists beneath it.1 It is essential that the surface layer be controlled to avoid an overly brittle part. Mark Hemsath the vice president of Sales – Americas for Nitrex Heat Treating Services, elaborated on this in a Heat TreatRadioepisode:
"Doug Glenn: I assume, with all the modern day technology and whatnot, we're able to control that white layer and/or depth of nitriding layer through your process controls and things of that sort."
"Mark Hemsath: Yes. Nitriding has been around a long time, but one of the problems that they had was controlling the white layer. Because they basically would just subject it to ammonia and you kind of got what you got. Then they learned that if you diluted it, you could control it. That's with gas nitriding. Then plasma nitriding came around and plasma nitriding is a low nitriding potential process. What that means is it does not tend to want to create white layer as much. It's much easier to control when the process itself is not prone to creating a lot of white layer, unlike gas. Now, in the last 10 – 15 years, people have gotten really good at controlling ammonia concentrations. They've really learned to understand that."
"ZeroFlow nitriding is ammonia-based gas nitriding," commented Dr.Maciej Korecki, PhD Eng., vice president of the Vacuum Furnace Segment at SECO/WARWICK Group. "It is distinguished by the fact that the nitrogen potential is controlled by introducing the right portion of ammonia at the right time and only ammonia, instead of a continuous flow of a mixture of ammonia and diluent gas."
"Consequently, the ZeroFlow method uses the minimum amount of ammonia needed to achieve the required nitrogen potential and replenish the nitrogen in the atmosphere, taking into account the situation where no ammonia is supplied to the furnace at all, no flow, hence the suggestive name of the solution," he continued. "Using ammonia alone in the nitriding process, we are dealing with a stoichiometric reaction (as opposed to some traditional methods), that is, one that is uniquely defined and predictable based on the monitoring of a single component of the atmosphere. Therefore, the ZeroFlow process controls very precisely through the analyzer only one gas, obtaining an improvement in the quality and repeatability of the results compared to various traditional methods."
According to Dr. Korecki, the process is about going back to the basics of nitriding: "The inventor of the method is Prof. Leszek Maldzinski of the Poznan University of Technology, who developed the theoretical basis and confirmed it with research. Then, more than 10 years ago, a partnership between SECO/WARWICK and the Poznan University of Technology initiated a project to develop and build the first industrial furnace designed to perform the ZeroFlow nitriding processes. The furnace was launched at SECO/WARWICK's research and development department (SECO/LAB®), where the method has been implemented and validated on dozens of industrial-scale processes."
Ferritic Nitrocarburizing
This nitrogen-based process can produce a deeper compound layer than nitriding, which is great for industrial machinery applications where this deep layer is needed for increased wear resistance and the critical strengthening of a deep case depth is not essential.
FNC has gone through a technical evolution with different heat treaters in the industry developing their own unique applications with method in mind. We'll look at two recent examples: AHT's Super Ultra Ox and Bodycote's Corr-I-Dur.
Edward Rolinski Senior Scientist Advanced Heat Treat, Corp. (Source: https://www.ahtcorp.com/)
According to experts at Advanced Heat Treat Corp. (AHT), Edward Rolinski (Dr. "Glow"), Jeff Machcinski, Vasko Popovski and Mikel Woods, "Thermochemical surface engineering of ferrous alloys has become a very important part of manufacturing. Specifically, nitriding and nitrocarburizing (FNC) processes are used since their low temperature allows for treatment of finished components. They are applied to enhance the tribological and corrosion properties of component surfaces.2 In many situations, nitriding replaces carburizing even if the nitrided layer is not as thick.3 A post-oxidizing step, applied at the end of FNC, leads to significant enhancement of corrosion properties by formation of a magnetite layer (Fe3O4).
"AHT’s newly developed process, UltraOx® Hyper, results in superior wear and corrosion resistance and allows for good control of the parts’ blackness. The latter is very important when the treatment is used for firearms. While the parts’ corrosion resistance improves with nitriding alone, the additional steps in UltraOx® Hyper significantly extend corrosion resistance. AHT is committed to achieving its customers’ desired metallurgical and cosmetic results through R&D and investing in state-of-the-art equipment. These innovations allow for flexibility in these areas."
In recent news, wave energy pioneer CorPower Ocean will be using Bodycote's thermochemical treatment, Corr-I-Dur®, for CorPower’s high-efficiency WECs. Image Source: www.waterpowermagazine.com
From Bodycote, they say that their proprietary Bodycote thermochemical treatment “Corr-I-Dur® is a combination of various low temperature thermochemical process steps, mainly gaseous nitrocarburising and oxidising.”
They explain, "In the process, a boundary layer consisting of three zones is produced. The diffusion layer forms the transition to the substrate and consists of interstitially dissolved nitrogen and nitride precipitations which increase the hardness and the fatigue strength of the component. Towards the surface it is followed by the compound layer, a carbonitride mainly of the hexagonal epsilon phase. The Fe3O4 iron oxide (magnetite) in the outer zone takes the effect of a passive layer comparable to the chromium-oxides on corrosion resistant steels.
"Due to the less metallic character of oxide and compound layer and the high hardness abrasion, adhesion and seizing wear can be distinctly reduced. Corr-I-Dur® has very little effect on distortion and dimensional changes of components compared to higher temperature case hardening processes."
How to Implement?
We’ve seen a lot of development in way of nitriding and ferritic nitrocarburizing (FNC), but for many heat treaters, you inherit specific processes and traditions of accomplishing heat treatment and do not have the chance to understand how to implement each process. Read the full 21 point comparative resource at FNC vs. Nitriding
Conclusion
The more informed you are, the better decisions you can make. For example, knowing these recent developments in metal treating and hardening is sure to help you decide whether to shift directions in how you company process parts for electric vehicles, or if you are ready to expand your offerings for your aerospace clients. It is clear that each of these processes have a future all-their-own. It’s up to you to decide whether that future should be yours, too.
For more information on the basics of hardness, listen to the what, why, and how of hardening with Mark Hemsath, an expert on metal hardness and vice president of Sales – Americas for Nitrex Heat Treating Services, on this Heat TreatRadio episode with Doug Glenn, publisher of Heat TreatToday. You can also review the resources below that were referenced in today’s article.
2 “Thermochemical Surface Engineering of Steels”, Woodhead Publishing Series in Metals and Surface Engineering: Number 62, Ed. Eric J. Mittemeijer and Marcel A. J. Somers, Elsevier, 2015, pp.1-769.
3 J. Senatorski, et. al, Tribology of Nitrided and Nitrocarburized Steels”, ASM Handbook Vol 18, Friction, Lubrication and Wear Technology, ed. G. Totten ASM International, 2017, pp. 638-652.
Senatorski, J. Tacikowski, E. Rolinski and S. Lampman, “Tribology of Nitrided and Nitrocarburized Steels”, ASM Handbook Vol 18, Friction, Lubrication and Wear Technology, ed. G. Totten ASM International, 2017.
“Thermochemical Surface Engineering of Steels”, Woodhead Publishing Series in Metals and Surface Engineering: Number 62, Ed. Eric J. Mittemeijer and Marcel A. J. Somers, Elsevier, 2015, pp.1-769.
How well do you know hardness processing? Can you draw the line where nitriding and ferritic nitrocarburizing (FNC) differ? In this Technical Tuesday feature, skim this straight forward data that has been assembled from information provided by four heat treat experts: Jason Orosz and Mark Hemsath at Nitrex, Thomas Wingens at WINGENS LLC – International Industry Consultancy, and Dan Herring, The Heat Treat Doctor at The HERRING GROUP, Inc.
Let us know what you think! What is the next comparison you'd like to see? What facts were you surprised by? Email Heat TreatDaily editor Bethany Leone at bethany@heattreattoday.com.